Methods  of  Training 
Social  Workers 


By  EMORY  S.  BOGARDUS 

Department  of  Sociology 
University  of  Southern   California 


PUBLISHED   BY 

Southern  California  Sociological  Society 

3500  University  Avenue 

Los  Angeles 

1921 


Methods  of  Training 
Social  Workers 


By  EMORY  S.  BOGARDUS 

Department  of  Sociology 
University  of  Southern   California 


PUBLISHED  BY 

Southern  California  Sociological  Society 

3500  University  Avenue 

Los  Angeles 

1921 


COPYRIGHT  1921 

Southern  California  Sociological  Society 


Methods  of  Training  Social  Workers 


1.  Social  Work  as  a  Profession. 

2.  Three  Purposes  in  Training  Social  Workers. 

3.  Co-operative  Nature  of  Training  Social  Workers. 

4.  Social  Group  Work. 

5.  Social  Case  Work. 

6.  The  Group  Basis  of  Case  Work. 

7.  Face  Cards  and  Case  Records. 

8.  The  First  Interview. 

9.  The  Main  Investigation. 

10.  Types  of  Evidence. 

11.  The  Diagnosis. 

12.  The  Treatment  of  the  Physically  Handicapped. 

13.  The  Treatment  of  the  Mentally  Handicapped. 

14.  The  Treatment  of  the  Socially  Handicapped. 

15.  The  Inspirational  Element  in  Treatment. 

16.  Record  Keeping. 

17.  A  Knowledge  of  Social  Agencies. 

18.  The  Psychology  of  Social  Work  as  a  Profession. 


Methods  of  Training  Social  Workers 

By  EMORY  S.  BOGARDUS 


1.  Social  work  as  a  profession.  Social  work  is  tending 
toward  the  rank  of  law,  medicine,  and  the  other  established 
professions,  all  of  which  passed  through  a  preliminary  stage 
similar  to  that  which  social  work  is  now  experiencing.  Several 
years  ago  (1916)  social  workers  themselves  were  surprised  when 
the  report  on  positions  in  social  work  by  Edward  T.  Devine 
and  Mary  Van  Kleeck  was  published,  showing  that  there  were 
at  least  4,000  paid  social  workers  at  that  time  in  New  York 
City  alone,  1,200  of  whom  being  men;  that  there  were  in  New 
York  City  twenty-one  organizations  paying  salaries  of  $5,000 
or  more  a  year  for  social  workers;  and  that  salaries  ranged  up 
to  $10,000  a  year. 

Social  work  has  suffered  from  the  fact  that  almost  anyone 
with  a  little  zeal  and  leisure  could  qualify.  Consequently  social 
welfare  activities  have  often  been  directed  by  persons  who  were 
ill-trained  or  not  trained  at  all;  who  had  a  single  idea  or  plan 
which  they  were  sure  would  transform  the  world ;  who  primarily 
sought  flattery  and  adulation;  or  who  gave  their  time  without 
remuneration  and  hence  could  claim  exemption  from  observing 
the  standard  rules  of  professional  social  work  procedure.  Social 
welfare  agencies  are  still  directed  oftentimes  by  persons  who  are 
chiefly  self-trained,  who  scorn  "book  learning,"  and  who  are 
certain  that  their  own  experiences  during  a  term  of  years  are 
sufficient  guides. 

Social  work  as  a  profession  is  emerging  from  its  period  of 
youth — a  period  similar  to  that  of  the  legal  profession  when 
ambitious  young  men  "read  law"  in  offices  and  shunned  the 
newly  organized  law  schools.  Schools  for  training  social  work- 
ers have  developed  in  recent  years  until  now  training  facilities 
may  be  found  in  nearly  all  the  larger  colleges  and  universities, 
as  well  as  in  independent  institutions,  such  as  the  New  York 
School  of  Social  Work. 


2.     Three  purposes  in  training  social  workers,      (a) 

Social  work  is  in  need  of  receiving  professional  recognition.  It 
is  characterized  by  complex  problems;  it  deals  with  the  most 
serious  phases  of  life;  it  has  far-reaching,  permanent  results — 
in  other  words,  it  has  all  the  essentials  of  a  profession,  except 
full  standing.  It  is  denied  complete  professional  recognition 
because  its  representatives  have  not  as  a  class  sought  thorough 
training. 

Social  welfare  agencies  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  suf- 
fer greatly  because  of  ill-trained  workers.  But  through  the 
activities  of  training  schools  for  social  workers,  social  welfare 
institutions  are  able  to  transform  their  official  personnel  from 
a  combination  of  paid  but  self-trained  individuals  and  untrained 
irregular  volunteers  to  an  integrated  group  of  paid,  thoroughly 
trained  workers,  assisted  by  seriously-minded  young  people  who 
are  rendering  volunteer  service  under  the  joint  direction  of 
trained  social  workers  and  the  supervisors  of  a  school  of  social 
work,  and  who  are  in  preparation  for  a  life  work. 

(b)  The  main  forms  of  social  field  work  give  students  in 
sociology  one  of  the  best  possible    introductions  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  problems  of  societary  life.   The  student  of  soci- 
ology who  supplements  his  classroom  work  with  social  field  work 
places  himself  in  a  strategic  position  with  reference  to  securing 
an  understanding  of  what  is  actually  taking  place  in  human 
society.     Classroom  discussion  by  itself  is  sometimes  unfortu- 
nately remote  from  real  life.    Class  or  group  discussion  of  social 
problems,  carried  on  pari  passu  with  daily  contacts  with  the 
phases  of  societary  life  that  are  under  discussion  afford  ideal 
bases  for  learning.     Such  opportunities  for  college  students  are 
usually  few;  almost  all  students  are  compelled  to  study  books 
rather  than  life.     Training  courses  in  social  work,   however, 
afford  a  combination  of  sociological  discussion  and  social  work 
activity  which  is  unusually  stimulating  and  conducive  to  stu- 
dent development. 

(c)  A  social  work  training  course  gives  the  beginner  the 
experience  which  he  must  have  if  he  is  to  reach  a  professional 
rank.     Volunteer  social  work  under  the  joint  supervision  of  a 
training  school  and  of  welfare  institutions  introduces  the  volun- 
teer by  graduated  steps  to  an  understanding  of,  and  an  ability 
to  handle,  the  problems  of  professional  social  work.    The  path- 

5 


way  is  made  clear  and  the  first  part  of  the  journey  is  carefully 
directed,  while  at  the  same  time  the  beginner  is  to  an  increas- 
ing degree  put  upon  his  initiative. 

3.     Co-operative  nature   of   training   social  workers. 

The  training  of  social  workers  is  a  co-operative  undertaking, 
including  four  factors:  the  social  agencies,  the  incapacitated, 
the  school  for  social  workers,  and  volunteer  workers.  Success- 
ful results  depend  upon  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  entire 
process  by,  and  a  bona  fide  participation  on  the  part  of,  all  the 
people  who  are  involved.  If  any  one  of  the  four  leading  classes 
of  persons  who  are  concerned  fail  to  function  properly  in  the 
situation  or  to  be  governed  at  all  times  by  an  appreciation  of 
the  problems  which  are  faced  by  the  other  parties  to  the  tacit 
agreement,  then  the  entire  plan  fails.  The  main  distinction 
between  the  work  of  the  volunteer  and  the  regular  social 
worker  may  be  emphasized  here.  The  regular  worker  should 
be  a  specialist  doing  technical  work.  The  volunteer  is  in  train- 
ing and  subject  to  be  called  on  to  do  any  one  of  a  variety  of 
things,  including  the  making  of  visits  and  supplying  the  per- 
sonal contacts  which  the  regular  worker  is  too  busy  to  make, 
(a)  A  factor  of  prime  importance  is  the  social  welfare 
agency  which  offers  to  make  a  place  on  its  staff  for  the  volun- 
teer worker.  The  agencies  which  are  best  equipped  to  train 
volunteers  have  often  had  bitter  experiences  in  this  connection. 
The  volunteer  frequently  has  an  unattractive  reputation.  Since 
he  is  working  without  pay,  he  often  objects  to  the  routine  which 
the  regular  worker  must  meet.  The  volunteer  may  break  an 
appointment  to  take  charge  of  a  class  or  club  with  too  little 
compunction.  He  may  fail  to  meet  these  engagements  without 
offering  an  explanation.  Occasionally  he  may  telephone  to  the 
agency  at  the  last  minute  that  he  cannot  come  because  of  some 
engagement  which  from  the  standpoint  of  the  agency  is  trivial. 
For  example,  the  volunteer  who  telephoned  the  agency  that  she 
could  not  meet  her  regular  appointment  because  of  "an  after- 
noon tea,"  neglected  to  consider  how  foolish  such  an  excuse 
appeared  in  the  eyes  of  the  agency's  superintendent.  The 
volunteer  as  a  class  is  often  viewed  unfavorably  by  welfare 
agencies  because  some  volunteers  have  lost  interest  in  a  specific 
type  of  social  work  in  two  or  three  months'  time.  Other 
volunteers  when  trusted  with  keeping  a  portion  of  an  institu- 
tion's records  have  proved  inaccurate.  The  volunteer  may  find 


the  name  of  a  friend  or  of  the  son  of  a  prominent  man  in  an 
institution's  record  books,  and  forget  that  all  data  of  this  kind 
are  confidential.  The  volunteer  is  prone  to  criticize  many  things 
about  social  welfare  institutions,  especially  before  he  has  had 
time  to  acquaint  himself  with  all  the  problems  that  the  institu- 
tion faces. 

The  volunteer,  therefore,  must  keep  in  mind  the  unfortu- 
nate experiences  which  social  agencies  have  had  with  persons 
of  his  type.  He  must  subject  himself  willingly  and  pleasantly 
to  the  same  routine  as  the  paid  worker.  He  must  take  special 
pains  to  meet  all  appointments  regularly  and  to  develop  a 
reputation  of  dependability  and  seriousness,  and  he  must  finish 
what  he  undertakes  even  though  unpleasant  circumstances  arise. 
In  all  his  relations  with  the  specific  welfare  agency,  he  must 
try  to  play  the  part  of  an  "insider"  in  a  natural,  trustworthy, 
confidential  way  or  else  he  may  find  himself  rated  and  treated 
as  an  "outsider." 

(b)  The  successful  volunteer  social  worker  is  quick  to 
obtain  the  point  of  view  of  the  person  who  is  being  aided.  The 
volunteer  must  know  people ;  he  must  understand  why  they  are 
in  difficulty,  without  always  asking  wjiy.j  He  must  grasp  not 
only  the  attitude  of  the  person  who  is  in  trouble  and  why  he 
is  in  trouble,  but  also  his  probable  sensitiveness  regarding  his 
condition.  The  wise  volunteer  is  careful  not  to  embarrass  a 
sensitive  needy  person ;  he  takes  some  things  for  granted  and 
moves  forward  with  an  air  of  hope  and  cheer,  inspiring  the 
temporarily  defeated  or  incapacitated  person  to  new  ambitions 
and  activities.  Sometimes,  however,  the  social  worker  deals 
with  the  pseudo-indigent  and  the  needlessly  thriftless.  In  these 
cases  he  will  usually  be  justified  in  making  an  open  analysis  of 
causes,  and  in  forcefully  reprimanding  the  guilty  party. 

Sometimes  the  volunteer  worker  unconsciously  commits  the 
error  of  attracting  undue  attention  to  himself,  perhaps  by  being 
queer  in  actions  or  dress,  by  not  being  neat,  or  by  wearing 
clothes  carelessly.  A  volunteer  who  is  dressed  in  the  apparel 
of  the  upper  middle  classes  or  the  wealthy  classes  often  turns 
the  self-respecting  indigent  person  against  him.  It  is  important 
to  dress  and  act  so  that  one's  superior  economic  status  will  not 
be  conspicuous  in  the  eyes  of  the  indigent.  Even  the  needy 
judge  social  workers  by  their  appearance.  A  costume  which  is 
normal  in  a  well-to-do  group  may  be  considered  ostentatious  in 


a  lower  economic  group.  Neatness,  good  taste,  common  sense, 
simplicity,  and  inexpensiveness  in  dress  make  a  favorable  impres- 
sion upon  and  command  the  confidence  of  the  needy.  Even  the 
expensive  limousine  of  the  would-be  social  worker  arouses  envy 
in  a  tenement  district,  creates  the  spirit  of  unrest  and  Bolshe- 
vism, and  throws  social  work  into  disrepute. 

(c)  The  third  partner  in  the  training  of  social  workers  is 
the  training  school.     Its  functions  are  to  define  and  maintain 
standards,  to  assist  social  welfare  agencies  in  utilizing  the  ser- 
vices of  volunteer  workers  to  the  best  advantage,  to  help  the 
volunteer  over  the  most  difficult  places  at  the  beginning  of  his 
training  career,    and   to   co-ordinate  the   activities   of  welfare 
agency,  the  volunteer  worker,  and  the  needy — to  the  construc- 
tive advantage  of  each  and  of  society. 

The  training  school  also  functions  to  encourage  certain 
volunteer  workers  and  to  discourage  others.  It  points  out  to  the 
former  how  they  may  improve  the  quality  of  their  work,  and 
to  the  latter,  how  they  do  not  possess  all  the  fundamental  char- 
acteristics for  attaining  success  in  social  work. 

Schools  of  social  work  are  directing  their  attention  to  prac- 
tice training,  and  to  discussion  classes,  as  well  as  to  funda- 
mental sociological  backgrounds.  The  beginner  will  find  the 
school  of  social  work  ready  to  give  him  all  the  direction  that 
he  needs  in  order  that  he  may  secure  a  scientific  training;  the 
school  will  also  endeavor  to  keep  his  viewpoint  sane,  whole- 
some, and  well  balanced.  As  he  learns  of  the  many-sided  nature 
of  social  work  as  a  profession,  he  will  perceive  that  he  is  enter- 
ing a  field  of  wide  social  usefulness  as  well  as  one  which  will 
develop  his  personality  to  its  fullest  limits. 

(d)  As  the  fourth  element  in  the  situation  the  volunteer 
worker  is   in   many   respects   the  most   important.      He   must 
assume  the  attitude  of  a  learner  in  his  relations  with  the  social 
agencies   and  the   training  school,   and   the   attitude   of   a   co- 
operator  in  his  contacts  with  the  incapacitated.     He  must  be 
prepared  to  face  the  harsh  phases  of  life  without  showing  per- 
turbation and  to  undertake  the  solution  of  new  and  difficult 
problems.     His  reward  is  great,  for  he  comes  to  know  people, 
in  fact  many  fine  people  who  are  heroically  fighting  the  battles 
of  life;  and  by  the  right  example  or  deed,  he  may  help  them 
over  the  rough  places. 

8 


Schools  of  social  work  have  found  that  the  best  volunteer 
social  workers  are  those  between  the  ages  of  21  and  35.  A 
person  under  21  years  of  age  is  usually  not  mature  enough  in 
judgment,  and  one  past  35  often  has  habits  which  are  so  well 
established  that  they  do  not  permit  him  to  function  well  as  a 
volunteer  in  training. 

Normally  the  volunteer  in  social  work  should  complete  two 
years  of  foundational  college  subjects  before  he  undertakes  social 
case  work.  A  proper  knowledge  of  backgrounds  is  essential. 
The  student  must  not  specialize  too  soon.  A  positive  degree 
of  patience  is  required  today  for  the  laying  of  a  foundation  that 
will  be  adequate  to  the  needs  of  a  far-reaching  career. 

An  acquaintance  with  biology  and  bacteriology  is  valuable 
to  the  social  worker.  The  ability  to  speak  a  modern  foreign 
language  is  useful.  The  study  of  history  gives  the  social  worker 
a  proper  perspective,  and  a  knowledge  of  economics  affords  an 
appreciation  of  powerful  material  factors.  Psychology,  social 
psychology,  and  particularly  sociology,  offer  a  fundamental  in- 
sight into  mental  processes  and  societary  laws. 

4.  Social  group  work.  Social  group  work  is  an  impor- 
tant beginning  point  for  volunteers.  In  its  simpler  forms  it 
refers  to  conducting  or  directing  clubs  and  classes  in  social  set- 
tlements, recreation  centers,  or  school  centers,  where  large  num- 
bers of  children  may  gather  together  after  school  hours.  Then 
there  are  institutions,  such  as  children's  hospitals  and  orphans* 
homes,  where  children  live  under  constant  supervision,  but 
who,  because  of  the  standardisation  of  such  supervision,  need 
the  special  leadership  attention  that  can  be  given  by  volunteer 
workers.  Oftentimes  it  is  impossible  for  the  regular  staff  to 
give  sufficient  attention  to  the  children  as  individuals  or  to 
them  in  small  groups.  Group  work  with  children  who  come 
to  settlements  and  other  social  and  educational  centers  present  a 
greater  variety  of  opportunities — and  problems — than  do  insti- 
tutional children,  in  fact,  nearly  all  the  opportunities  that  the 
latter  type  does,  and  additional  ones.  For  this  reason  the  dis- 
cussion here  will  be  directed  to  group  work  in  social  settlements 
and  similar  institutions.  Inasmuch  as  the  beginning  volunteer 
can  work  best  with  children  and  adolescents  rather  than  with 
adults  this  discussion  will  be  devoted  largely  to  group  work 
with  the  young.  Within  the  limitations  that  have  been  defined 
group  work  for  volunteers  is  of  two  kinds:  (1)  leadership 


activities,  and   (2)   investigation  work,  which  in  turn  is   (a) 
of  a  psychological  nature,  and  (b)  of  a  sociological  nature. 

The  person  who  essays  to  act  as  a  leader  of  a  group  of  lively 
settlement  boys  or  girls  must  understand  both  the  psychology  of 
adolescence  and  of  leadership,  and  also  the  sociology  of  social 
settlement  neighborhoods.  A  good  starting  point  for  the  vol- 
unteer worker  is  first  to  seek  out  the  club's  own  leader  and  to 
establish  a  friendly  and  "chummy"  contact  with  him.  When- 
ever a  dozen  children  gather  together  one  or  two  individuals 
at  once  act  as  leaders,  and  if  the  same  group  meets  together 
for  even  a  few  times  one  individual  usually  becomes  the  recog- 
nized leader.  Through  this  individual  the  volunteer  worker 
may  find  out  the  pet  desires,  personal  problems,  and  idiosyncra- 
sies of  the  club  members.  For  periods  of  time  he  may  work 
almost  entirely  through  the  club's  natural  leader,  giving  sugges- 
tions, and  setting  an  example  of  dependableness,  promptness, 
straightforwardness,  openmindedness,  and  otherwise  becoming  a 
super-leader  who  by  the  indirect  influence  of  an  active  partici- 
pant may  re-shape  the  attitudes  and  interests  of  all  the  club 
members.  While  the  main  activity  of  the  club  may  consist  of 
plays  and  games;  or  in  the  case  of  a  class  of  girls,  cooking  or 
sewing;  or  in  the  case  of  adults,  the  study  of  English,  yet  in 
these  instances  the  volunteer  social  worker  may  wield  the  great- 
est influence  by  setting  the  example  of  a  true  man  among  boys, 
or  of  a  true  woman  among  girls,  and  of  a  true  American  under 
all  circumstances. 

After  the  volunteer  becomes  acquainted  with  each  member 
of  his  group,  he  may  begin  to  visit  each  in  his  home,  not  as  an 
inspector,  but  as  a  friend,  helping  to  repair  a  broken  bicycle, 
bringing  flowers,  or  calling  upon  a  sick  parent.  In  these  ways 
he  secures  new  insights  into  the  characteristics  of  his  friends  and 
discovers  new  methods  of  helpfulness.  In  these  ways  only  he 
comes  to  know  the  members  of  his  group — which  is  one  of  the 
essentials  of  the  highest  type  of  leadership.  After  the  volun- 
teer has  established  relationships  of  good  will  and  confidence 
with  his  boys  and  girls,  he  is  in  a  position  to  make  an  analysis 
either  (a)  of  their  psychological  traits,  or  (b)  of  their  social 
situations.  In  making  psychological  studies  the  volunteer  must 
consult  frequently  the  supervisor  of  field  work,  especially  in 
the  preparation  of  a  schedule  of  a  standard  set  of  topics.  A 

10 


leader  of  a  group  of  boys  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age 
profitably  followed  this  schedule: 

1 .  Name 

2.  Address 

3.  Birthplace  and  date 

4.  Do  you  like  school  ? Why  ? 

5.  Your  favorite  study : 

6.  Your  most  difficult  study 

7.  Your  occupational  ambition 

Why? 

8.  Your  favorite  amusement 

Why? 

9.  Your  attitude  toward  religion 

10.  Attitude  toward  socialism.  . 


It  is  understood  that  the  answers  to  these  questions  were 
not  secured  in  a  direct  or  categorical  fashion,  but  indirectly  in 
the  regular  group  or  class  work,  on  hikes,  and  in  a  normal  con- 
versational way.  The  volunteer  did  not  record  the  answers  to 
the  questions  in  the  presence  of  the  boys.  In  a  reasonably  short 
time  he  secured  the  answers  to  all  the  questions  from  all  the 
boys,  and  had  a  considerable  amount  of  data  from  which  he 
worked  out  several  tables  and  interesting  graphs.  When 
studies  of  this  kind  are  based  on  schedules  that  can  be  used  in  a 
large  number  of  groups,  the  results  are  not  only  enlightening 
but  scientific  and  widely  significant  as  well.  Studies  of  this 
character  possess  some  of  the  characteristics  of  case  study.  In 
the  social  type  of  study  the  leader  uses  a  different  form  of 
schedule.  For  example,  the  following  schedule  served  well  the 
purposes  of  one  leader  who  was  interested  in  the  home  condi- 
tions of  his  boys: 

1.  Parents  living Address 

2.  Parents  living  together 

3.  No.  of  brothers Sisters 

Ages 

4.  Parents  own  home No.  of  boarders 

No.  of  rooms Rent  per  mo 

5.  How  long  lived  at  present  address 

6.  Bathtub Washing  machine 

Electricity Auto Garden 

II 


7.  Condition  plumbing 

8.  Piano Victrola Telephone 

9.  What  newspapers,  magazines  taken  regularly .  . . 


10.  Discipline  in  home 

11.  Parents'  attitude  toward  school 

12.  Toward  religion 


The  volunteer  leader  may  make  a  community  or  neighbor- 
hood survey.  In  this  event  he  may  use  the  services  of  his  group 
members  to  advantage,  and  give  them  a  splendid  training  in 
the  study  of  social  conditions,  asking  them  to  draw  or  chart 
several  specific  city  blocks.  This  work  may  easily  become  a  fine 
co-operative  undertaking.  A  map  of  this  kind  should  show  the 
location  of  the  various  buildings,  indicating  the  purpose  to  which 
each  is  put,  and  the  location  of  institutions,  such  as  churches, 
amusement  centers,  schools,  industries.  This  study  may  be  used 
to  provoke  many  interesting  discussions  concerning  the  improve- 
ments that  are  needed  and  the  methods  that  may  best  be  pursued 
in  securing  the  improvement.  This  neighborhood  study  may 
become  in  reality  a  genuine  social  survey,  and  bring  about  per- 
manent neighborhood  improvements  besides  giving  many  indi- 
viduals a  new  sense  of  social  responsibility. 

5.  Social  case  work.  The  common  form  of  social  work 
is  known  as  case  work.  The  "case"  may  be  either  an  indi- 
vidual or  a  family.  The  problems  which  are  involved  in  cer- 
tain instances  are  often  far  more  complicated  than  the  first 
examination  indicates.  The  beginner  needs  to  be  very  patient, 
resourceful,  and  willing  to  learn.  He  sometimes  will  find  him- 
self facing  a  situation  behind  which  evil  hides  its  stubborn  face, 
or  lurks  with  treacherous  eyes.  The  social  worker  must  be 
unusually  versatile  in  his  mental  attitudes,  moving  about  with  a 
profound  faith  in  human  nature  and  with  an  hopeful,  optimistic 
air,  and  yet  at  times  he  must  be  as  wise  as  a  serpent.  He  must 
know  and  understand  the  weaknesses  of  human  nature,  and  at 
the  same  time  be  quick  to  see  the  constructive  human  elements 
which  may  be  stimulated  into  effective  action.  He  must  be  well 
versed  in  the  principles  of  social  psychology  and  be  able  to  apply 
them  accurately. 

Before  the  volunteer  actually  begins  case  work,  he  may  prof- 
itably study  cases  that  have  been  written  up;  he  may  prescribe 

12 


treatment  as  if  he  were  dealing  with  actual  individuals.  By 
so  doing  he  will  develop  an  initial  degree  of  self-confidence.  If 
at  the  same  time  he  has  the  advantage  of  supervised  class  dis- 
cussion in  this  matter,  he  will  be  able  to  profit  greatly  in  read- 
ing cases  and  prescribing  "treatment." 

6.  The  group  basis  of  case  work.  At  the  outset  of 
his  work  the  volunteer  should  keep  in  mind  one  sociological 
principle  perhaps  above  all  others,  namely,  that  the  group  is 
the  basis  of  all  individual  life.  By  himself  the  individual  is  an 
abstraction;  he  would  never  have  developed  beyond  the  level 
of  an  idiot.  He  is  group-made  more  than  self-made.  He  is 
born  as  a  helpless  babe  into  the  traditions  of  the  family  group 
and  also  of  neighborhood,  city  or  country,  national  and  racial 
groups,  and  probably  a  religious  group,  and  so  on.  As  he  grows 
he  becomes  a  more  or  less  active  member  of  many  of  these 
groups.  When  he  is  mentally  undeveloped  he  is  continuously 
and  fundamentally  influenced  in  his  mental  viewpoints  by  the 
traditions  of  his  family,  play,  school,  church,  and  other  face- 
to-face  groups.  Even  as  an  adult  he  is  usually  unconscious  of 
the  deep  influence  of  his  occupational  group  upon  his  thinking, 
and  may  never  become  aware  that  he  has  acquired  a  preacher, 
a  teacher,  a  farmer,  a  business  or  some  other  type  of  occupa- 
tional mind. 

To  understand  thoroughly  a  child  and  his  problems  it  is 
necessary  to  know  his  family  group,  together  with  all  the 
expressions  of  the  many  group  traditions  which  are  crystallized 
in  it.  In  the  same  way  an  analysis  of  the  child's  play  group  and 
other  groups  sheds  light  on  the  child's  desires,  actions,  and 
problems. 

It  is  in  a  defective  family  group  life  particularly  that  are 
found  nearly  all  the  causes  of  personal  and  social  maladjust- 
ments which  the  social  worker  is  called  upon  to  change.  The 
family  group  as  an  institution  needs  to  be  mastered  from  all 
angles.  The  woman  who  goes  as  a  friendly  visitor  should  be 
skilled  in  household  management,  hygiene,  and  sanitation,  as 
well  as  in  matters  of  discipline,  morals  and  religion.  If  she 
can  show  the  housewife  how  to  become  an  expert  buyer,  a 
dietetist,  a  budget  maker,  a  better  mother  and  wife,  she  will 
be  rendering  genuine  service.  If  this  prospect  seems  to  make 
too  many  demands  upon  the  limited  experience  of  the  volunteer, 
let  the  volunteer  also  keep  in  mind  the  splendid  training  for 

13 


himself  which  this  same  prospect  holds,  as  well  as  the  opportuni- 
ties for  unselfish  service. 

7.  Face  cards  and  case  records.  Upon  being  assigned 
to  a  social  welfare  agency,  the  volunteer  will  usually  begin  by 
reading  the  case  records,  and  studying  face  cards.  At  once  he 
changes  his  status  from  an  "outsider"  to  an  "insider"  and  co- 
operates with  the  agency  in  keeping  the  facts  on  the  case  records 
as  strictly  confidential  data.  Any  failure  to  maintain  an  atti- 
tude of  perfect  trust  diminishes  the  volunteer's  chances  of 
success. 

Case  records  are  valuable  for  the  deduction  of  principles. 
While  each  case  necessarily  varies  from  every  other,  yet  cases 
fall  into  types.  The  volunteer  will  search  for  these  type  divis- 
ions not  only  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  ailment  but 
also  regarding  causes  and  methods  of  treatment.  He  will  also 
search  for  the  sequence  between  type  causes,  type  ailments,  and 
type  treatments.  The  social  worker  of  experience  who  has  not 
had  scientific  training  often  fails  to  observe  underlying  relation- 
ships. The  fullest  success  in  case  work  involves  a  scientific 
insight  into  the  relations  between  causes  and  effects. 

In  the  study  of  case  records  the  face  card  or  specific  schedule 
for  securing  the  initial  information  is  significant.  The  volun- 
teer often  takes  the  face  card  too  lightly;  he  does  not  perceive 
its  importance  as  an  agent  of  standardization  and  efficiency. 
The  face  card  includes  general  data,  such  as  the  facts  concern- 
ing the  address,  age,  incapacitation,  and  so  forth;  and  a  specific 
"narrative,"  giving  the  history  of  the  case,  together  sometimes 
with  a  medical  record,  a  finance  record  of  aid  given  the  inca- 
pacitated, and  a  treatment  record.  In  complex  cases  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  keep  the  narrative,  medical  record,  and  finance  record 
on  cards  or  schedules  separate  from  the  face  card. 

The  variation  in  face  cards  is  great — according  to  the 
variety  of  social  work  that  is  being  done.  One  of  the  best  ways 
to  learn  the  meaning  of  a  face  card  is  to  make  one  for  each  of 
several  kinds  of  social  work,  for  example,  in  listing  the  impor- 
tant facts  concerning  ( 1 )  orphan  babies  that  are  to  be  placed  in 
foster  homes;  (2)  delinquent  boys;  (3)  mentally  defective 
adolescents  needing  institutional  care;  (4)  widowed  mothers 
(with  dependent  children);  (5)  aged  persons  who  have  no 
money,  and  no  relatives  able  to  give  them  support;  (6)  persons 
incapacitated  because  of  tuberculosis;  (7)  women  convicted  of 

14 


immoral  conduct;  (8)  the  blind  who  are  untrained  and  tem- 
porarily dependent;  and  other  cases  which  the  supervisor  of 
field  work  may  designate. 

At  this  point  the  volunteer  may  be  warned  against  a  grave 
danger.  The  face  card  and  similar  records  tend  to  reduce  the 
incapacitated  to  mere  "cases"  and  to  de-humanize  social  work. 
Although  the  term  "case"  is  convenient,  yet  the  worker  should 
use  it  as  little  as  possible  and  keep  in  mind  that  the  person  in 
need  is  probably  self-respecting,  and  is  to  be  treated  as  a  friend. 

8.  The  first  interview.  The  first  interview  is  of  far- 
reaching  importance  for  many  reasons.  The  needy  person  who 
is  being  interviewed  is  usually  sensitive  regarding  his  need.  He 
commonly  is  possessed  of  self-respect.  He  regards  the  inter- 
viewer as  an  "outsider."  The  interviewer  must  create  an 
atmosphere  of  confidence  and  become  an  "insider"  or  else  the 
incapacitated  person  may  receive  adverse  impressions  that  will 
be  exceedingly  difficult  to  overcome. 

The  volunteer  must  first  determine  what  are  the  essential 
facts  that  he  needs  to  know — it  is  at  this  point  that  the  face 
card  is  of  assistance.  In  seeking  the  answers  to  the  questions 
which  have  been  determined  upon,  the  volunteer  must  make  his 
approach  in  a  simple,  business-like  way,  without  affectation.  He 
must  act  normally,  as  one  who  is  meeting  an  equal  on  an  ordi- 
nary errand.  His  attitude  will  be  represented  by  the  question: 
In  what  ways  can  I  be  of  help?  In  conducting  the  interview, 
he  must  seek  to  know  the  causal  factors,  the  attitude  of  the 
mind  of  the  incapacitated  person,  and  moreover  the  reasons  for 
the  specific  attitude  of  mind. 

The  place  where  the  interview  is  held  is  significant.  The 
presence  of  a  third  or  fourth  party  is  likely  to  be  discomfiting, 
and  to  prevent  the  one  interviewed  from  being  entirely  frank. 
The  social  worker  may  arrange  for  the  interview  to  be  held  at 
the  office  of  the  welfare  agency,  although  this  plan  is  often 
impractical  because  it  may  advertise  the  need  or  situation  of  the 
incapacitated  person.  As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  ask  to  see  the  needy 
person  in  his  own  home.  The  conference  between  two  persons 
at  a  time  and  place  where  they  will  not  be  disturbed  is  usually 
the  best  procedure  for  adjusting  difficulties.  Circumstances, 
however,  vary  the  conditions  under  which  interviews  may  be 
held  to  the  best  advantage. 

15 


The  volunteer  worker  must  be  continuously  on  the  alert  for 
clues  to  new  information  and  to  facts  that  will  ordinarily  not 
be  disclosed.  The  conditions  in  and  about  the  home  of  the  one 
interviewed  often  constitute  decisive  evidence — a  point  which 
indicates  the  superiority  of  the  home  interview  over  the  office 
interview,  even  though  the  former  makes  heavy  demands  on  the 
volunteer,  such  as  street  car  travel,  expenditure  of  extra  time, 
and  the  possibility  of  not  finding  the  party  who  is  sought. 

Note-taking  at  the  first  interview  is  to  be  avoided.  It  gives 
the  impression  of  formalism,  or  that  evidence  is  being  secured 
which  will  be  used  against  the  person  who  is  giving  the  facts. 
It  may  arouse  unnecessary  and  damaging  suspicions. 

When  visiting  the  home  of  an  immigrant,  the  volunteer  is 
at  a  disadvantage  if  he  cannot  speak  the  specific  foreign  lan- 
guage that  is  used.  His  alternative  is  to  secure  a  child  in  the 
home  to  act  as  an  interpreter — a  plan  which  can  often  be 
effected  by  going  first  to  the  school  in  the  district  and  through 
the  principal  or  a  teacher  making  the  acquaintance  of  a  child 
from  the  home  in  question.  Through  the  school  and  the  child 
a  satisfactory  entree  can  usually  be  made  to  what  might  other- 
wise be  a  closed  home  to  the  interviewer. 

After  establishing  a  degree  of  confidence  and  trust,  and 
securing  the  necessary  data,  the  social  worker  has  not  entirely 
succeeded  unless  when  he  goes  away  he  leaves  the  needy  family 
or  individual  in  an  improved  frame  of  mind,  and  wishing  the 
interviewer  to  return.  The  worker  must  avoid  prolonged  inter- 
views; when  his  errand  is  accomplished  he  should  leave 
promptly.  Even  if  he  is  compelled  to  listen  to  tales  of  misfor- 
tune, he  must  remain  master  of  the  situation  and  courteously 
withdraw  when  opportunity  affords. 

An  interesting  and  profitable  exercise  for  a  class  of  volun- 
teers in  training  is  to  interview  each  other  in  turn — supposing 
a  given  case  and  a  particular  need.  Then  the  supposition  of 
need  can  be  changed  and  the  "interviewing"  process  be  con- 
tinued. The  supervisor  will  suggest  particular  needs  as  bases 
for  "interviews,"  and  make  suggestions  regarding  the  strong 
and  weak  features  of  each  "interview." 

9.  The  main  investigation.  The  main  investigation 
whether  taking  place  at  the  first  interview  (where  the  problem 
is  simple)  or  at  a  later  interview,  or  interviews,  ordinarily  fol- 
lows the  physician's  procedure.  The  interviewer  inquires  about 

16 


the  conditions  from  the  client  himself.  Although  he  has  a 
definite  list  of  questions  in  mind,  he  shifts  his  questioning  as 
the  facts  and  circumstances  warrant.  He  does  not  take  notes 
unless  he  is  certain  that  note-taking  will  not  create  prejudice. 
He  often  must  make  at  least  a  few  notes  as  soon  as  he  can  do 
so  privately,  in  order  to  keep  from  confusing  the  details  of  the 
various  cases  upon  which  he  is  working.  Later,  the  data  can  be 
transferred  to  the  face  cards  and  record  sheets. 

The  investigation  may  need  to  include  evidence  not  only 
from  the  client  but  also  from  other  members  of  the  family, 
although  relatives  by  marriage  are  often  prejudiced  against  the 
client,  and  are  unreliable.  The  teacher,  the  preacher,  priest,  or 
rabbi,  the  employer,  the  physician — these  persons  are  usually 
able  to  throw  considerable  light  on  many  complicated  situations. 
Relatives  can  give  an  insight  into  family  history  and  tempera- 
mental traits;  professional  observers  are  able  to  diagnose 
behavior.  In  the  case  of  the  child,  the  teacher  can  give  a  report 
on  mental  ability,  health,  school  attendance,  conduct,  and  sim- 
ilar matters.  The  investigation  may  require  an  examination  of 
the  certificate  of  birth,  the  baptismal  record,  the  court  records. 
The  investigator  will  familiarize  himself  with  the  laws  govern- 
ing the  type  of  institution  or  of  work  in  the  specific  case. 

The  final  test,  however,  is  to  see  for  one's  self.  The  re- 
ports of  other  persons  must  be  measured  by  one's  own  judgment 
in  the  light  of  all  the  facts  which  it  is  possible  to  assemble. 

10.  Types  of  evidence.  In  making  investigations  the 
volunteer  should  clearly  define  all  the  various  types  of  evi- 
dence, know  what  constitutes  a  fact,  and  beware  of  biases, 
particularly  of  racial  and  religious  prejudices.  As  already  stated 
the  best  type  of  evidence  is  that  which  the  investigator  sees  for 
himself.  Testimonial  evidence,  or  the  statement  of  a  reliable 
person  of  that  which  he  knows  to  be  a  fact,  is  valuable.  Hear- 
say evidence,  or  the  statement  of  a  person  that  he  has  heard  this 
or  that,  is  untrustworthy.  Circumstantial  evidence  may  well 
be  treated  cautiously.  While  a  considerable  mass  of  circum- 
stantial evidence  is  often  convincing,  it  is  rarely  conclusive. 
Rare  indeed  is  the  case  that  should  be  settled  absolutely  on  cir- 
cumstantial evidence  alone. 

A  colored  maid  in  Georgia  was  sent  to  prison  for  several 
years  on  circumstantial  evidence  to  the  effect  that  she  had  stolen 
a  diamond  ring.  The  circumstances  were  as  follows:  The 

17 


lady  of  the  house  left  her  diamond  ring  on  a  bureau  in  the  bed- 
room while  the  maid  was  cleaning  the  room.  A  few  minutes 
later  the  lady  returned  for  her  ring — it  was  gone.  No  one  had 
been  in  the  bedroom  in  the  meantime  except  the  maid,  who 
denied  taking  the  ring.  The  circumstantial  evidence  was  con- 
vincing and  the  maid  was  convicted,  although  stoutly  maintain- 
ing her  innocence.  Three  or  four  years  later  the  house  was 
being  re-modeled,  when  a  workman  in  the  basement,  noticing  a 
sparkling  object  in  the  rubbish  which  he  was  removing,  discov- 
ered a  diamond  ring  with  the  initials  of  the  lady  of  the  house 
upon  it — it  was  the  alleged  stolen  ring.  Within  the  ring  was 
the  skeleton  of  a  mouse,  which  on  the  day  when  the  ring  dis- 
appeared evidently  had  run  across  the  bureau  and  tried  to  crawl 
through  the  ring.  With  the  ring  around  its  body,  the  mouse 
had  scampered  to  the  basement.  The  ring  caught  upon  some 
object  and  the  mouse  perished. 

The  investigator  needs  to  guard  himself  against  asking  lead- 
ing questions,  that  is,  questions  which  suggest  an  answer  that  is 
desired.  For  example,  the  question,  You  weren't  feeling  well 
yesterday,  were  you?  implies  the  answer  that  is  wanted.  The 
noncommittal  question  is  better:  Were  you  well  or  ill  yes- 
terday ? 

The  investigator  should  also  beware  of  making  dogmatic 
judgments.  He  is  in  danger  of  concluding  abruptly  that  a  given 
person  has  tuberculosis  and  so  express  his  opinion  in  his  report. 
Since  he  is  not  a  physician  it  would  be  safer  for  him  to  state: 
Mr.  A.  acts  as  if  he  had  tuberculosis,  or  Mr.  A.  complains  of 
lung  trouble.  The  suspended  judgment  does  not  indicate  an 
inactive  mind,  but  rather  an  active  mind  searching  for  the 
whole  truth. 

Social  evidence  differs  greatly  from  legal  evidence — it  is 
more  complex,  varied,  and  human,  involving  as  a  rule  more 
psychological  insight  and  sociological  apperception.  It  deals 
with  causes,  tendencies,  attitudes,  behavior,  and  all  types  of 
social  controls  as  well  as  with  legal  codes  and  regulations. 

11.  The  diagnosis.  After  the  main  facts  are  gathered 
the  diagnosis  logically  follows.  Again  the  procedure  is  similar 
to  that  which  the  doctor  pursues,  who  after  securing  the  avail- 
able information,  diagnoses  the  ailment  and  arrives  at  a  con- 
clusion relative  to  the  causes  and  the  best  method  of  treatment. 
The  diagnosis  which  the  social  worker  makes  is  based  on  a 

18 


sociological  background,  and  an  analysis  of  the  predicament,  or 
the  maladjustment.  It  is  often  necessary  to  make  hypothesis 
after  hypothesis,  testing  out  each  in  turn  until  the  correct  inter- 
pretation is  reached.  Ordinarily  not  one  cause  is  at  the  root  of 
the  predicament,  but  several.  The  social  diagnostician  should 
beware  of  being  satisfied  with  finding  a  single  determining 
cause;  he  must  continue  his  diagnosis  until  he  locates  other 
causes  or  else  establishes  the  non-existence  of  such.  It  is  also 
necessary  that  he  protect  himself  against  a  purely  personal  inter- 
pretation of  causal  elements ;  he  may  find  it  worth  while  to  sub- 
mit the  leading  facts  to  his  fellow  workers,  seeking  their 
diagnoses  as  a  check  against  his  own. 

Methods  of  treatment  depend  on  the  results  of  diagnoses. 
A  study  of  diagnoses  shows  that  the  needy  fall  into  three  main 
classes:  (a)  the  physically  handicapped,  (b)  the  mentally  handi- 
capped, and  (c)  the  socially  handicapped.  Each  of  these  classes 
is  composed  of  several  important  subdivisions,  which  will  be 
indicated  in  the  sections  that  follow. 

12.  The  treatment  of  the  physically  handicapped. 
The  physically  handicapped  include  several  classes  of  worthy 
individuals.  As  a  rule  the  blind  require  specific  trade  training; 
they  need  to  make  specialized  uses  of  their  senses  which  are  not 
impaired.  This  training  should  be  based  on  their  ability  and 
activities  previous  to  becoming  blind ;  or  if  they  were  born 
blind,  upon  physical  and  psychical  diagnoses  of  their  potential 
abilities. 

The  cripple  is  usually  a  self-respecting  person  who  is  sen- 
sitive regarding  his  condition.  Sometimes  he  may  endeavor  to 
ignore  his  crippled  condition,  asking  to  be  regarded  as  a  per- 
fectly normal  individual.  His  need  is  that  of  securing  a  special 
trade  training,  suitable  to  his  physical  condition. 

The  cripple  who  becomes  a  pseudo-beggar,  sitting  near  a 
street  corner  and  silently  appealing  to  the  passing  crowds,  is  not 
only  a  pitiable  object  but  a  person  who  should  be  trained  for  a 
self-respecting  occupation.  He  should  not  be  allowed  to  prey 
upon  the  sympathies  of  the  public.  Even  as  a  seller  of  pencils 
and  shoestrings  he  is  essentially  a  beggar.  People  buy  of  him 
not  from  immediate  need,  but  from  a  sense  of  pity.  Occasion- 
ally he  is  victimized  by  his  relatives  who,  through  the  appeal 
which  his  condition  makes  to  the  sympathies  of  passers-by,  are 
able  to  support  not  only  him  but  themselves  as  well.  A  trade 

19 


training  would  transform  public  mendicants  into  self-respecting, 
productive,  and  useful  citizens.  In  removing  crippled  mendi- 
cants from  the  streets  the  social  worker  will  find  legal  obstacles, 
and  must  act  through  legal  channels.  This  work  may  be  done 
best  by  the  district  attorney. 

The  indigent  sick  furnish  a  variety  of  problems  to  the  social 
worker.  In  fact,  the  administering  of  adequate  treatment  to 
the  indigent  sick  creates  a  special  type  of  social  worker,  namely, 
the  medical  social  worker,  the  hospital  social  worker,  or  the 
social  service  nurse.  In  these  cases,  a  medical  or  nurse's  train- 
ing is  useful.  The  physician,  treating  the  worthy  poor,  is 
handicapped  if  he  does  not  have  a  social  work  training.  Like- 
wise, the  social  worker  in  treating  the  indigent  sick  is  at  a  dis- 
advantage if  he  is  lacking  in  medical  knowledge  or  a  nurse's 
training. 

Training  in  medical  social  service  varies  greatly.  There  is 
the  service  that  may  be  rendered  within  the  hospital  in  remov- 
ing as  far  as  possible  the  causes  of  unnecessary  worries  of  one 
kind  and  another  on  the  part  of  patients  who  do  not  have 
friends  who  can  attend  to  these  matters.  There  is  investigation 
work:  to  secure  data  concerning  the  social  and  economic  status 
of  the  patient,  to  determine  how  far  free  medical  care  should  be 
given,  and  to  learn  what  the  circumstances  of  the  patient  will 
be  when  he  leaves  the  hospital.  Very  often  a  patient  who  has 
suffered  from  tuberculosis  or  a  similar  disease  is  discharged 
from  the  hospital  or  sanatorium  as  cured,  but  the  beneficent 
healing  is  nullified  by  the  fact  that  the  person  returns  to  over- 
crowded and  unhealthy  housing  conditions — the  same  condi- 
tions which  caused  his  original  illness.  In  this  type  of  situation 
the  volunteer  worker  may  render  splendid  service.  Not  only 
does  he  receive  training  in  social  investigation  but  he  may  be 
instrumental  in  safeguarding  a  discharged  patient  against  un- 
favorable living  conditions.  A  considerable  amount  of  medical 
social  service  is  preventive,  and  affords  a  training  in  case  work 
that  is  unsurpassed  in  social  helpfulness. 

13.  The  treatment  of  the  mentally  handicapped.  The 
treatment  of  the  mentally  incapacitated  is  unusually  difficult 
and  requires  a  special  training  in  the  psychological  laboratory. 
It  is  necessary  to  determine  first  the  nature  of  the  mental  inca- 
pacity, whether  the  individual  is  mentally  deficient  as  in  the 
case  of  the  moron,  the  imbecile,  or  the  idiot,  or  whether  he  is 

20 


simply  untrained.  After  these  special  analyses  have  been  made, 
the  difficulties  of  treatment  begin.  The  care  of  the  mentally 
incapacitated  demands  peculiar  psychical  insight,  mature  judg- 
ment, and  special  skill. 

Mental  incapacity  is  frequently  coupled  with  vice,  and  hence 
the  psychiatric  worker  must  also  be  an  expert  in  social  pathology. 
As  the  terms  mental  backwardness  and  mental  disturbance 
imply,  the  treatment  will  usually  be  educational.  Hence  a 
specific  training  in  pedagogy  as  well  as  in  psychology  is  val- 
uable to  the  social  worker  in  this  field. 

The  treatment  of  the  very  young  and  of  the  very  old  who 
are  mentally  incapacitated,  and  of  the  insane,  is  ordinarily  insti- 
tutional. As  a  rule  the  volunteer  in  this  type  of  work  should  be 
carefully  selected,  especially  he  who  is  to  work  with  the  insane 
and  the  mentally  unbalanced  who  are  aged. 

The  treatment  of  the  mentally  deficient  in  institutions  con- 
sists of  providing  forms  of  work  and  play  at  which  they  may  be 
made  useful  and  happy.  If  the  mentally  deficient  are  cared  for 
in  private  homes  the  treatment  will  require  that  the  care-takers 
be  instructed  in  the  best  educational  methods.  Psychiatric  social 
work  thus  is  highly  specialized. 

14.  The  treatment  of  the  socially  handicapped.  The 
treatment  of  the  socially  incapacitated  is  difficult  to  analyze  in 
a  small  compass  because  of  the  numberless  forms  of  social  inca- 
pacity, (a)  The  most  common  predicament  which  the  social 
worker  faces  is  the  fatherless  family.  The  treatment  required 
is  to  help  the  mother  and  children  to  keep  together,  and  to 
maintain  as  normal  a  family  life  as  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances. 

(b)  Another  phase  of  social  incapacity  is  represented  by  neg- 
lected or  dependent  children.  The  best  methods  are  those  of 
keeping  the  family  together,  of  finding  foster  parents,  or  pro- 
viding the  children  with  institutional  care.  One  of  the  first 
things  for  the  social  worker  to  do  is  to  learn  whether  the  neg- 
lected or  dependent  child  is  necessarily  neglected  or  dependent. 
Often  there  are  relatives  who  will  come  to  the  aid  of  a  child 
when  they  are  located  and  their  responsibilities  are  made  plain. 

In  the  case  of  the  illegitimate  child  the  social  worker 
normally  will  leave  him  under  the  care  of  the  mother,  but  com- 
pel the  father,  if  he  can  be  found,  to  pay  a  portion  of  the  child's 
maintenance,  or  insist  in  many  cases  upon  the  marriage  of  the 

21 


parents.  When  the  mother  is  chronically  immoral,  the  foster 
home  or  the  institutional  home  will  offer  the  best  solution. 

For  the  average  orphan  the  foster  home  is  superior  to  the 
institutional  home.  This  rule  holds  true  especially  with  ref- 
erence to  infants  and  young  children.  In  regard  to  the  older 
boy  or  girl  who  is  past  five  or  six  years  of  age,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  individual's  habits  and  reactions  have  become  estab- 
lished to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  difficult  for  him  to  fit  into  the 
life  of  a  foster  home,  unless  that  home  is  very  carefully  selected, 
that  is,  unless  there  is  a  temperamental  correlation  between  the 
child  and  the  members  of  the  foster  home.  The  infant  and  the 
young  child,  however,  can  fit  into  a  wisely  selected  foster  home 
without  creating  insuperable  difficulties.  For  such  children  the 
suitable  foster  home  is  more  nearly  normal  than  an  institution 
where  fifty,  a  hundred,  or  more  children  are  kept  together, 
where  they  eat  at  long  tables,  work  in  groups,  and  sleep  in 
dormitories.  While  group  training  is  excellent  and  essential, 
yet  group  training  predominantly  or  almost  exclusively  does  not 
fit  a  child  for  a  life  of  individual  responsibility. 

The  selecting  of  a  proper  foster  home  requires  a  twofold 
diagnosis :  first,  of  the  real  and  the  potential  traits  of  the  child ; 
and  second,  of  the  conditions  in  and  surrounding  the  prospec- 
tive home.  The  religious  beliefs  of  the  child,  if  he  has  such,  or 
of  his  parents,  will  be  respected  in  selecting  a  home.  The  rela- 
tion of  the  child's  temperament  to  that  of  the  proposed  parents 
and  of  the  children  that  may  already  be  members  of  the  spe- 
cific family,  needs  accurate  equating.  It  is  important  that  the 
parents  possess  sufficient  patience  to  train  a  foster  child.  The 
ideals  of  the  parents  who  wish  to  adopt  a  child  require  careful 
scrutiny,  for  they  indicate  whether  the  child  will  be  trained 
constructively  or  not.  The  social  conditions  in  the  given  neigh- 
borhood will  have  a  fundamental  influence  upon  the  child,  for 
good  or  ill.  The  playmates  that  the  adopted  child  will  have, 
more  than  any  other  factor  except  the  foster  parents  themselves, 
will  probably  determine  the  future  of  the  child. 

During  the  probationary  period  before  the  adoption  occurs, 
several  visits  to  the  home  by  a  regular  or. volunteer  worker  are 
advisable.  The  worker  must  be  quick  to  judge  social  situations, 
particularly  the  question  of  domestic  harmony.  He  must  obtain 
from  the  child  who  has  been  "placed,"  a  genuine  expression 
regarding  his  relationship  to  the  home.  He  must  observe 

22 


whether  or  not  the  child  has  found  congeniality.  An  answer  to 
a  specific  question  regarding  this  matter  from  either  the  child 
or  the  parents  will  rarely  be  conclusive,  and  hence  the  social 
worker  must  use  a  less  definite  method  of  approach.  The 
worker  may  test  his  personal  judgment  by  conferences  with  the 
public  school  teacher,  the  religious  leader  who  visits  in  the  home, 
and  with  other  reliable  persons. 

The  boarding  school,  as  distinguished  from  the  free  home, 
combines  both  the  institutional  and  individual  treatment 
methods.  The  children  are  in  boarding  homes  a  part  of  the 
time  and  in  their  own  homes  the  remainder  of  the  time.  The 
boarding  home  arrangement  is  a  method  of  meeting  temporarily 
a  disturbed  family  life.  The  social  worker  needs  to  be  an  adept 
in  adjusting  the  differences  that  sometimes  arise  between  chil- 
dren, the  boarding  home  authorities  and  the  parent  or  parents. 
Often  the  worker  is  called  upon  to  determine  what  concessions 
regarding  the  standard  charges  shall  be  made  to  worthy,  but 
economically  incapacitated  mothers,  or  parents. 

(c)  Another  variety  of  social  incapacity  is  represented  by 
delinquent  children.  These  are  usually  cared  for  by  juvenile 
protective  associations,  juvenile  probation  officers,  juvenile  halls 
or  detention  homes,  and  juvenile  courts.  The  volunteer  worker 
should  familiarize  himself  with  the  laws  of  his  state  and  com- 
munity relating  to  delinquency,  both  of  children  and  parents. 
He  will  need  also  to  be  an  expert  in  moral  education,  in  fact, 
a  moral  leader. 

Truancy  is  a  form  of  social  incapacity  that  is  closely  related 
to  delinquency  and  that  may  sometimes  be  a  form  of  delin- 
quency. Many  cases  of  so-called  truancy  are  caused  by  cir- 
cumstances over  which  the  truants  have  little  control,  such  as 
sickness  in  the  family,  economic  incapacity  of  parents,  and  sim- 
ilar factors.  Parents  are  sometimes  to  blame,  deliberately  keep- 
ing the  child  out  of  school.  Again,  the  child  himself  may 
maliciously  play  truant.  He  may  have  become  an  educational 
misfit  through  his  own  fault,  the  fault  of  the  teacher,  or  of  the 
educational  system,  and  have  developed  a  genuine  dislike  for 
school.  He  may  be  motivated  chiefly  by  a  strong  desire  to  earn 
money,  because  some  of  the  boys  whom  he  knows  are  doing  so. 
Obviously  the  social  worker  will  prescribe  treatment  that  will 
ferret  out  and  remove  causes.  The  best  methods  are  adjustive, 
educational,  and  preventive. 

23 


(d)  The  homeless  comprise  another  large   group  of  the 
socially  incapacitated.     A  classification  based  on  degree  of  de- 
pendency will  be  used  here.     ( 1 )  There  are  the  homeless  who 
are  dependent  for  a  short  time  only,  and  who  will  find  in  a  tem- 
porary loan  and  in  assistance  in  getting  employment  the  only 
aid  they  need.     (2)  The  homeless  who  are  habitually  dependent 
usually  need  occupational  training.     Under  direction  they  may 
become  economically  self-supporting.     (3)   The  homeless  who 
are  economically  helpless  require  institutional  care. 

(e)  The  alcoholic  are  adults  who  have  been  enslaved  for 
years  by  a  vicious  habit.   This  type  of  the  socially  handicapped 
is  fortunately    decreasing    in    number.     Institutional    care    is 
necessary. 

(f)  Children  of  immigrants  often  lose  contact  with  parental 
traditions  before  becoming  truly  adjusted  to  the  conditions  of 
our  country.     The  treatment  is  largely  that  of  educating  the 
immigrant  parents  part  passu  with  their  children  in  American 
ways,  and  especially  in  the  use  of  the  English  language.     Adult 

immigrants  need  a  sympathetic  Americanization  treatment. 
These  needs  may  be  met  in  part  by  classes  in  the  study  of  Eng- 
lish, hygiene,  household  management,  civics.  Adult  immigrant 
women  need  the  services  of  home  teachers,  who  in  going  from 
home  to  home  carry  new  and  useful  ideas,  American  ideals,  and 
constitute  a  never-ending  source  of  inspiration  to  better  and 
larger  living.  The  field  of  social  work  that  is  represented  by 
home  teacher  training,  and  Americanization  training  is  develop- 
ing a  technique  of  its  own.  The  treatment  is  educational.  The 
successful  Americanization  worker  should  be  a  worthy  teacher, 
and  acquainted  with  the  meaning  of  American  ideals,  with  the 
cultural  backgrounds  of  the  various  racial  groups,  and  with 
methods  of  teaching  English  and  civics  to  people  of  a  foreign 
tongue. 

(g)  In  recent  years  the  soldier  and  sailor  home  service  of 
the  Red  Cross  has  become  prominent.     This  work  possesses  ;i 
peculiarly  patriotic  appeal;  it  attracted  at  one  time  large  num- 
bers of  persons  whose  superficial  interest  was  ephemeral.     The 
treatment  includes  making  economic  adjustments,  domestic  ad- 
justments, and  especially  educational  adjustments.     Vocational 
rehabilitation  is  vital  in  the  case  of  the  soldiers  and  sailors  who 
are  crippled  or  incapacitated  for  life. 

24 


15.  The  inspirational  element  in  treatment.     The  best 
form  of  treatment  in  almost  all  case  work  is  to  give  the  inca- 
pacitated a  contact  with  a  rich,  sympathetic,  understanding  per- 
sonality.   The  attitude  of  mind  and  heart  of  the  social  worker 
toward   his  work  is   decisive.     The  worker  who  breathes   a 
degree  of  self-importance  and  superiority,  who  has  become  cal- 
loused, who  is  moved  by  a  narrow  zeal,  who  seeks  self-glorifica- 
tion  and  public  acclaim — hinders   the  advancement  of   social 
work  as  a  profession.     He  who  possesses  a  well-developed  and 
balanced  personality,  who  strives  continuously  to  understand 
people  and  their  problems,  who  seeks  new  methods  of  procedure, 
who  exemplifies  in  his  person  broad  moral  convictions  and  re- 
ligious ideals — he  is  one  of  the  world's  greatest  benefactors. 

Oftentimes  the  only  treatment  possible  is  to  "soften"  the 
harshness  of  the  environmental  conditions.  Sometimes  the  best 
treatment  is  to  stimulate  the  individual  who  is  in  need  to  greater 
initiative  and  resourcefulness,  and  encourage  him  to  take  hold 
of  life  with  new  hope  and  determination.  Since  no  standard 
treatment  can  be  set  forth,  the  volunteer  worker  will  cultivate 
versatility.  In  and  through  the  multiform  opportunities  in 
social  work  the  personality  of  the  volunteer  will  become  richer, 
and  increasingly  inspiring  and  useful. 

16.  Record  keeping.    Record  keeping  is  a  summation  of 
social  case  work.     It  begins  with  the  face  card  and  schedule 
and  ends  with  a  succinct,  complete  statement  of  treatment  and 
of  resultant  conditions.    After  the  novelty  of  the  situation  dis- 
appears the  volunteer  may  fall  into  the  easy  habit  of  "trusting" 
his  memory.     Even  social  agencies  sometimes  have  no  adequate 
system  of  record  keeping.     There  is  no  remedy  for  slip-shod 
social  work  except  a  knowledge  of  the  best  scientific  procedure 
and  a  determination  to  follow  this  procedure.     The  reports 
which  the  volunteer  submits  concerning  his  work  will  indicate 
to  a  degree  his  fitness  for  continuing  in  social  work.    The  mak- 
ing of  these  first  reports  represents  the  beginning  of  worthy  or 
unworthy  habits.     The  report  should  be  written  carefully,  ac- 
cording to  a  logical  plan;  it  should  present  facts  as  far  as  pos- 
sible rather  than  the  worker's  opinion.     It  usually  will  not  fol- 
low a  diary  form,  in  which  descriptions  are  given  in  chrono- 
logical order.     It  will  be  analytical,   ( 1 )   describing  behavior, 
(2)  showing  needs,  and  (3)  indicating  possible  treatment. 

25 


Where  the  face  cards  or  other  forms  of  a  specific  agency 
seem  inadequate  the  volunteer  may  suggest  changes,  being  cer- 
tain that  there  is  a  need  for  changes,  and  also,  testing  the  new 
proposals  in  order  to  be  sure  that  they  are  worth  while.  Where 
methods  have  not  been  developed  by  the  agency  in  order  to 
meet  new  situations  that  have  arisen,  the  volunteer  as  he  gains 
in  experience  will  have  opportunity  to  do  pioneer  work  of 
importance. 

Record  keeping  has  a  research  significance.  An  inventory 
of  the  work  of  a  welfare  agency  includes  a  thorough  analysis  of 
the  social  records.  Very  few  agencies  have  such  inventories 
made  regularly  if  at  all,  and  yet  if  scientific  methods  of  record 
keeping  have  been  used,  studies  of  this  character  are  invaluable. 
They  afford  comparative  observations,  which  indicate  general 
trends.  Under  the  direction  of  a  trained  social  worker  the 
volunteer  may  secure  useful  training  in  analyzing  the  social  data 
which  the  records  contain,  in  making  tables,  plotting  curves,  and 
making  graphs,  and  in  transforming  an  institution's  social  facts 
into  valuable  generalizations.  This  type  of  training  leads  into 
the  field  of  the  research  sociologist. 

17.  A  knowledge  of  social  agencies.  A  knowledge  of 
the  social  agencies  in  the  community  in  addition  to  the  one  in 
which  the  volunteer  at  a  specific  time  is  working  is  essential. 
The  volunteer  needs  to  know  the  various  city  and  county  wel- 
fare agencies  and  the  supervisory  welfare  bodies  of  the  state. 
He  should  know  the  degree  of  efficiency  and  relative  worth  of 
each  agency — where  each  is  strong,  and  each  is  weak.  In  pre- 
scribing treatment  it  is  necessary  to  know  to  what  institutions 
one  can  best  direct  the  incapacitated — what  agency  can  best 
train  the  blind,  or  the  mentally  defective;  what  agency  can 
care  best  for  the  homeless  aged ;  what  is  the  best  boarding  home 
for  children ;  and  so  forth.  If  there  are  several  institutions 
which  are  doing  the  same  form  of  social  work  in  about  the  same 
way,  the  volunteer  must  judge  which  will  be  better  able  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  incapacitated,  always  in  the  light  of  the 
incapacitated's  particular  needs,  temperament,  religious  beliefs, 
racial  traditions.  The  volunteer  should  visit  every  welfare 
agency  in  his  city  and  county,  and  make  the  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  some  of  the  workers  in  each  institution  as  far  as 
possible. 

26 


18.     The  psychology  of  social  work  as  a  profession. 

The  social  worker  should  know  the  psychology  of  his  occupa- 
tion, that  is,  the  ways  in  which  social  work  exerts  an  influence 
upon  his  mental  habits.  It  is  easy  for  the  social  worker  to  keep 
his  eyes  so  close  to  individual  cases  that  the  deep-seated  causes 
are  not  observed.  Likewise,  methods  of  fundamental  ameliora- 
tion receive  no  consideration.  In  helping  the  incapacitated  the 
worker  should  keep  continually  in  mind  the  large  societary  pic- 
ture, and  especially  its  bright  side.  It  is  possible  for  the  worker 
to  take  his  work  so  seriously  that  he  gets  lost  in  the  pathological 
side  of  life.  Poverty,  vice,  crime,  maladjustments  of  all  kinds, 
and  other  pathological  conditions  may  pull  the  worker  into  a 
current  of  social  slime.  In  this  connection  the  importance  of  a. 
sound  sociological  background  is  self-evident.  Sociology,  which 
is  the  scientific  study  of  group  phenomena,  and  which  considers 
the  laws  of  sound  social  processes  and  normal  personal  growth, 
provides  the  social  worker  with  the  perspective  which  he  needs 
in  order  that  he  may  not  become  discouraged,  and  that  he  may 
direct  the  incapacitated  safely  across  the  currents  of  misfortune 
to  the  high  ground  of  self-efficiency  and  respect  as  well  as  of 
social  usefulness. 

The  volunteer  social  worker  will  observe  the  distinction 
between  case  work  and  social  reform.  Case  work  is  only  one 
avenue  of  securing  social  amelioration ;  it  is  individual,  particu- 
laristic, and  minute  in  character,  and  its  psychological  effect 
upon  the  worker  is  likewise  particularistic.  Its  complement  is 
social  reform  or  mass  procedure,  such  as  social  legislation.  By 
utilizing  legal  enactments  this  latter  method,  if  supported  by 
an  educated  public  opinion,  may  abolish  social  nuisances  in  an 
entire  state  or  nation  at  a  single  stroke. 

Social  case  work  gives  concrete  experience  and  affords  warm 
human  contacts ;  social  reform  is  general,  dealing  primarily  with 
groups  rather  than  with  individuals.  By  seeing  life  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  general  needs,  social  reformers  are  able  to 
catch  the  meaning  of  large  social  movements;  the  case  worker 
knows  life  in  its  individual  aspects  and  hence  is  an  authority 
which  the  reformer  must  frequently  consult.  The  social  re- 
former lifts  his  eyes  to  the  future ;  the  case  worker  has  his  eyes 
bent  on  the  present,  on  today's  particular  opportunity.  To- 
gether, hand  in  hand,  each  may  supply  what  the  other  lacks, 
and  give  to  social  progress  a  multiplied  impetus. 

27 


REFERENCES. 

Mary  Richmond,  Social  Diagnosis,  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion, 1917. 

Frank  D.  Watson,  editor,  "Social  Work  With  Families," 
Annals  of  the  American  Academy,  May,  1918. 

C.  R.  Attlee,  The  Social  Worker,  Bell,  1920. 

F.  Stuart  Chapin,  Field  Work  and  Social  Research,  Cen- 
tury, 1920. 

Mary  Conyngton,  How  to  Help,  Macmillan,  1909. 

J.  F.   Steiner,  Education  for  Social  Work,  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1921. 

Ada  E.   Sheffield,   The  Social  Case  History,  Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  1920. 


28 


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